Often, however, your doctor will not be able to give you the answer so quickly. For any problem that is more internal than those I have mentioned so far, more complicated methods are needed to get to see the source of the symptom.

There are instruments available now that allow us to see parts of the body that we previously could only see by operating or (indirectly) by X-rays. These instruments are basically long flexible tubes that can be passed into various passages. They have

sophisticated lighting system that can ‘see around corners’ and often also magnify any abnormalities that need closer checking. The specialist can also take specimens through them. This means of looking inside is called endoscopy (‘endo’ means inside, ‘scopy’ means looking at). In ‘upper gastrointestinal endoscopy’ we go through the mouth and see into the throat, gullet (oesophagus), stomach and upper part of the small intestine, and even, in some cases, into the tubes from the liver, gall-bladder and pancreas. \\ ith bronchoscopy, also done through the mouth, we can see down the windpipe (trachea) into all the major bronchial tubes of the lung. With colonoscopy we go through the anus to see the whole of the large intestine (colon). Cystoscopy is going through the urinary passage (urethra) to see the bladder and opening of the tubes from the kidneys. Most of these examinations are

usuailly carried out with the patient awake. They are uncomfortable but shouldn’t be painful. Your doctor will usually give you a sedative to help you relax. Of course, any of these can be done under a general anaesthetic but this is not quite as safe.

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